An Exhibition of Photographs from the Department of Classics and Archaeology and Material from the Monash University Library Rare Books Collection 30 July - 2 October 1998 Exhibition Catalogue by Colin A. Hope Senior lecturer, Department of Classics and Archaeology. Exhibition Curator Richard Overell Rare Books Librarian

           

The Book of the Dead

Introduction
In 1988 two almost perfectly preserved, wooden books (codices) were found abandoned in the kitchen of a fourth-century house at the site of Ismant el-Kharab, ancient Kellis, in the Dakhleh Oasis of Egypt (see opposite). Between 1991 and 1992 others were found in a neighbouring house plus thousands of fragments of ancient texts written upon papyrus; annually since then more have been discovered. The first finds were made by a small team led by the writer; since then this group has expanded to become a group of some twenty international researchers whose work has been organised through the Department of Classics and Archaeology at Monash University since 1991. This exhibition presents a summary of the major discoveries; in presenting this review I wish to acknowledge the contribution made by of all members of the Ismant el-Kharab team and my other colleagues of the Dakhleh Oasis Project.

Rare Books Exhibition Area

Map of Egypt showing locations of Ismant el-Kharab, ancient Kellis (reproduced from M.L. Bierbrier (ed.), Portraits and Masks. Burial Customs in Roman Egypt, London 1997. p.viii).

The Dakhleh Oasis Project and a Brief History of Dakhleh Oasis

The exploration of Ismant el-Kharab (Ismant the Ruined) has been in progress since 1986. It forms part of the Dakhleh Oasis Project directed by Anthony J. Mills, sponsored by the Royal Ontario Museum (Toronto), The Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities (Toronto), The University of Durham and the American Research Center in Egypt (Cairo). Since 1991 the Ismant el-Kharab excavations have been funded by the Australian Research Council, ^[1] administered by Monash University, with assistance from The Egyptology Society of Victoria (Monash University), Edith Cowan University (Perth), and Rosemary and Eric Cromby. The concession to work in the Dakhleh Oasis is granted by the government of the Arab Republic of Egypt through the Supreme Council of Antiquities, to whom we are indebted for their support.

The Dakhleh Oasis Project (DOP) was established in 1977 to undertake a detailed study of the Oasis after which it is named. It is a multi-disciplinary project with an international team drawn from Australia, Egypt, Europe and North America. Dakhleh lies some 800 km SSW of Cairo on the same latitude as Luxor; it covers an area of 70 km E/W and 35 N/S. The aim of the DOP is to document the history of human occupation in the Oasis from its beginning until the Arab conquest of Egypt in 641. To date in excess of 400 archaeological sites have been recorded and this number increases annually as more survey work on the perimeter of the Oasis is undertaken. One of the most recent sites to be discovered is also the earliest with a faunal assemblage which may date as early as 200,000 BCE; ^[2] associated with these remains is some evidence for worked stone tools indicating the presence of humans. As part of the holistic approach taken by the project detailed studies are also in progress of the geomorphological evolution of the Oasis, its changing environment and humankind's impact upon this. Here the study of the changing fauna and flora play an important role in documenting the gradual desiccation of the region, especially during the Holocene, until it attained its current arid conditions. Some of the oldest finds made by the project are dinosaur fossils.

A continuous human presence within the Oasis can be documented for c40,000 years; indigenous cultures with both Saharan and Nile Valley contacts occupied Dakhleh until the arrival of significant numbers of ancient Egyptians. This appears to have occurred by the beginning of the Sixth Dynasty^[3] of Egypt in approximately 2,300 BCE. Following this the Oasis was incorporated into the Egyptian administration and Nile Valley culture supplanted that of the Dakhleh peoples to the extent that local traits disappear almost entirely. Why the ancient Egyptians deemed it necessary to annexe the Oasis is uncertain. There are no mineral or other deposits which might have attracted them and so we must assume that it was a result of cultural imperialism prompted in all probability by desires to secure its south-west flank at a time when Nubia (northern Sudan) witnessed the creation of a unified state which could either block or threaten Egyptian exploitation of its natural resources and manpower. In taking Dakhleh the Egyptians could then gain access to regions to the south via a desert route which by-passed the Nubian princedom.

It is unlikely that the indigenous Dakhleh population migrated elsewhere in face of the arrival of the Egyptians, and there is no evidence either from Dakhleh or the Nile Valley of armed conflict as part of the process of domination. The locals may simply have adopted Egyptian culture, or perhaps they had no choice in the matter! Dakhleh remained a part of greater Egypt henceforward, though there were brief periods when control was weakened by internal problems within Egypt. The greatest interest in the region by the Egyptian administration would seem to have been during the late Old Kingdom, especially in the Sixth Dynasty (2345-2195). From this period date the largest number of archaeological sites of the Pharaonic Period. Thereafter, there was a reduction in population size and only a few sites are known for each of the ensuing main periods: The Middle and New Kingdoms, the Eleventh to Thirteenth (2040-1650) and Eighteenth to Twentieth Dynasties (1550-1070) respectively. There seems to have been a gradual increase in activity during the Third Intermediate Period, particularly the Twenty-Second Dynasty (945-715), and the Late Period, the Twenty-Fifth to Thirtieth Dynasties (715-332).

During the following period of Macedonian rule, the Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BCE), Dakhleh continued to witness an increase in population but the greatest expansion occurred during Roman rule, particularly during the first to fifth centuries CE. Well over half of the sites discovered by the DOP can be assigned in their entirety to this period while many others also witnessed activity. This undoubtedly resulted from the introduction of improved irrigation techniques and the Roman wish to exploit the agricultural wealth of Egypt to its full. This can be seen in the numerous farmsteads which survive, the traces of extensive field systems and waterways surrounding the main settlements and in the wealth of documentation which has been discovered. From this period the nature of our documentation changes. Previously written material from both Dakhleh and the Nile Valley concerning the Oasis is concerned primarily with the interests of the Egyptians and is thus extremely biased: we see Dakhleh through the eyes of the Nile Valley administration. During the Roman Period we get a greater sense of how the local Dakhleh people viewed their world from administrative, economic, religious and personal perspectives. These focus upon Dakhleh naturally and it is extremely interesting to read references of journeys"..to Egypt". Despite over two thousand years of domination the Dakhleh population regarded itself as not Egyptian; Dakhleh was not Egypt. This was also the attitude of the people of the Nile Valley; Egypt for them was the land flanking the Nile and extending only to the mountains which form the Valley and the deserts on either side of the Nile Delta. Although the data on life in Dakhleh during the Roman Period illustrates the conditions peculiar to that time it also illuminates for us much that was undoubtedly typical of the Oasis during earlier periods.

Amongst the numerous Roman Period sites (see map opposite) in Dakhleh none has yielded such valuable data as Ismant el-Kharab. The preservation of most of the site is remarkable; it is largely buried in wind-blown sand and there is no modern occupation over the ancient. Whilst two other sites were once more important than this one, namely the ancient capital of Mothis (modern Mut) and Trimithis (Amheida south of el-Qasr), they have suffered from the encroachment of the modern town in the case of the former and by salination and extensive collapse in the case of the latter. Mothis is a mere shadow of its former self; only its denuded temple enclosure and its extensive cemeteries survive, and these have been plundered in antiquity and more recently. Thus, when the surface surveying of all identifiable ancient sites excepting the prehistoric, many of which lie beyond the present area of cultivation, was completed in the early 1980s and the DOP inaugurated its second phase of operations, the selection and excavation of sites which would provide the detailed information to place within context the survey data, it was natural that Ismant el-Kharab would be selected. The excavations, it was hoped, would serve as a type site for the Dakhleh in the Roman Period. If securely contexted deposits could be found then the material they yielded would enable the more accurate dating of surface collections from other sites in Dakhleh and enable a fuller account of the region at that time to be complied. Given time, financial and other constraints, the detailed examination of a large number of sites is impossible, even if only in part. The investment which has been made at Ismant el-Kharab has been fully rewarded, more so than could have been anticipated, as I hope will be indicated in the exhibition and the short account of the discoveries which follows.
 

[1] These were awarded to Colin A. Hope and R. Geoffrey Jenkins of the University of Melbourne between 1991-3 and Colin A. Hope and Iain Gardner of Edith Cowan University between 1995-7.

[2] The designations BCE, before the common era, and CE, of the common era, will be used where necessary in place of BC and AD.

[3] This term is used to designate in sequence the different families of kings who ruled in the Nile Valley. Thirty dynasties are distinguished, commencing in approximately 3000 until the arrival of the armies of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE. The short period of Persian rule which preceded Alexander's conquest is generally not allocated a dynasty number. Following the Macedonian conquest Egypt was ruled by the family of Ptolemy, one of Alexander's generals, until the last of the line, Kleopatra VII (The Great) was defeated by Rome in 30 BCE. Thereafter, Egypt became a Roman province with an administration controlled first by Rome and then Constantinople (Byzantium). While the ancient capital varied throughout the Pharaonic Period, Memphis near Cairo was always one of the most important administrative centres and often the capital. Following Alexander's conquest Alexandria became the capital until it was superseded by Cairo under the Arabs.From Egyptian Hieroglyphs to Greek and Latin(reproduced from W. V. Davies, Egyptian Hieroglyphs, London 1990, p. 132)

The Exhibition
One focus of the exhibition is the written material which has been found. The discovery of large quantities of inscriptions written upon papyrus, wooden boards, fragments of pottery vessels (ostraka) and parchment at Ismant el-Kharab has been described as the most important such find to be made in Egypt in the last 60 years. This is not only because of their number but also the diversity of topics with which they deal and the fact that they derive from controlled excavations. They provide a vivid account of life in the village where they were found; we know the affairs of several generations of various families who occupied specific houses over the space of approximately one hundred years. This detailed knowledge of the find context of the inscriptions, whilst not unique, certainly increases the significance of the find for many earlier finds were made in the rubbish dumps associated with ancient cities and for many others the context is not known at all as they were bought on the antiquities market. Therefore, to understand the full significance of the texts a short description of the site itself is necessary, and amongst the surviving monuments some equal in importance to the inscriptions have been found.

The inscriptions upon the remains of the temple at Ismant el-Kharab and those found throughout the village contain examples of most of the major pre-Arab languages and scripts which were used. The language of Egypt, ancient Egyptian, occurs written in hieroglyphic, hieratic and demotic scripts, though the latter two are not common; Greek, which was the official language from the time of Alexander's conquest until it was superseded by Arabic, is the most commonly attested. Coptic, the last stage of ancient Egyptian which is written using Greek characters, is frequent, used primarily for private letters and religious material. A brief description of the evolution of ancient Egyptian language and the scripts which were used is also provided. This section of the exhibition is illustrated by means of several rare books recently acquired by Monash University through the generosity of Keith Stott, and also several antiquities which are housed in the Museum of Mediterranean Antiquities of the Department of Classics and Archaeology. Many of the items on display there, and a few included in this exhibition, are on loan to the University by Graham Geddes whose support of the Department of Classics and Archaeology is gratefully acknowledged.

The other section within the exhibition is devoted to the illustration and translation of a selection of the ancient texts discovered at Ismant el-Kharab. These have been chosen to illustrate the diversity of the finds and range of topics which they cover. Inevitably, only a small sample can be provided.

The Egyptology Society of Victoria
One of the minor sponsors of the excavations at Ismant el-Kharab is the Egyptology Society of Victoria, which has also funded some of the costs involved in producing illustrations for this exhibition. This society is organised through the Department of Classics and Archaeology and was established in 1991 to foster to and cater for the interest in ancient Egypt within the Melbourne region by providing public lectures, seminars, exhibitions and other events. It sponsors either singly or with the Australian Centre of Egyptology at Macquarie University annual lecture tours to Australia by eminent Egyptologists from overseas. It has provided prizes for achievement to students and assisted others to participate in the excavations at Ismant el-Kharab. Membership of the society is by means of a donation to Monash University and is open to all.

The following summary is based upon the excellent, succinct account provided by W. V. Davies in Egyptian Hieroglyphs (British Museum Press, London 1987) with supplementary information from S. Quirke and C. Andrews, The Rosetta Stone: facsimile drawing (British Museum Press, London 1988).

I: Language
Ancient Egyptian is one of the earliest recorded languages rivalled in its antiquity only by Sumerian, the first language and script of ancient Iraq. The oldest inscriptions written in Egyptian date to approximately 3200 BCE and were recently discovered in the tomb of ruler of part of southern Egypt who was possibly named Scorpion, at the site of Abydos (see over). They comprise dockets written in hieroglyphic script which identify commodities buried along with the tomb owner to be used in his afterlife. They attest the existence of an elaborate system of commodity control and distribution which operated throughout the country well before the first unified state came into existence in circa 3000. They also show that the script must have been developed considerably earlier than the date of these pieces. From these early beginnings the use of ancient Egyptian is recorded to the present day, for, in its latest stage Coptic, the language continued in use despite the use of Arabic as the official language since late antiquity. It is thus the longest recorded language known.

Ancient Egyptian belongs to the Afro-Asiatic group of languages, frequently termed Hamitic.

There are six branches of this group:

Ancient Egyptian

Semitic: including Akkadian, used in ancient Iraq after Sumerian, Hebrew and Arabic

Berber: used in North Africa, especially Libya

Chadic: used in Chad

Cushitic: occurring in the Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia and NW Kenya

Omotic: used in South Ethiopia

It is an agglutinative language wherein the subtleties of tense, mood, voice and person are indicated by additions to the verbal root. This root may itself have been varied in these various aspects by changes in inflection or vowels, but any such details are largely lost to us as a result of the fact that in its written forms the vowels were not written. They are included only in the latest stage of the language, Coptic, but by the time of its development major changes in the language had occurred and it is thus hazardous to rely totally upon Coptic to indicate how Egyptian was pronounced in its earlier stages.
These earlier stages are:

 

Name	Period of use
Archaic Egyptian:	from its beginnings until the Third Dynasty, circa 2670
Old Egyptian:	Old Kingdom to First Intermediate Period, the Third to early Eleventh Dynasties, circa 2770-2000
Middle Egyptian:	Middle Kingdom to Second Intermediate Period, the mid-Eleventh to Seventeenth Dynasties, 2000-1550; this is the classic stage of the language which was used regularly for monumental inscriptions after it ceased to be in common usage.
Late Egyptian:	New Kingdom to Late Period, the Eighteenth Dynasty to Twenty-Fifth Dynasty, 1550-664.
Demotic:	Late Period to Roman Periods, 664 BCE - 394 CE
Coptic:	originates in the first century BCE, not common until fourth century CE; used to the present day.

The development from one stage of the language into another was gradual and regional variations are known to have existed. The ancient Egyptians were apparently not interested in grammatical analysis, at least there is no evidence for this in surviving texts. From the modern study of the various stages of the language it can be seen that there are major differences between Old - Middle Egyptian on the one hand and Late Egyptian - Coptic on the other. Some ancient Egyptian words and names past into Arabic and thence into English, e.g., adobe, Mary, Susan, Humphrey. Use of ancient Egyptian in its traditional written forms became less common as the Roman Period progressed and it has been suggested recently that by the second century CE it had largely died out except amongst a very limited number of priests who used it only for religious purposes. It was then superseded by Coptic.

II: Scripts

Hieroglyphic
This is the script most associated with ancient Egypt. As mentioned above, its earliest occurrence can now be dated to circa 3200 BCE and the last dated inscription in hieroglyphic was written at the Temple of Philae south of Aswan in 394 CE. The name of the script is derived from the Greek and means "sacred carved (letters)". In ancient Egyptian it was termed "writing of divine words" or simply "divine words/speech", or "script of the words of god" and individual signs were termed images. This illustrates the belief that the script was divinely created by Djehuty (Thoth), god of wisdom, who transmitted its use to humankind to be used with respect. Its use was closely related to representational art and the two are regularly integrated into the same composition: each component complements and is dependent upon the other. In meaning and function they were both imbued with the power to bring to life and preserve for eternity that which they depicted and described. Once the Opening of the Mouth ritual was performed over the deceased at the entrance to the tomb, over the tomb itself, then what was written on the walls, coffins or objects in the tomb came into existence, it came to life. This power of the written word likewise existed in the spoken word, hence the importance of recitations during religious and mortuary ceremonies. In its simplest form this meant that what was spoken came into being and is reflected in the modern concept of the power of the written word; it is the origin of the biblical concept of the logos, the Word and its power in creation. The potency of the hieroglyphic script is reflected in the mutilation of signs which might prove dangerous in certain contexts, such as the letter f, written with the sign representing the deadly horned viper, which in some texts in tombs is shown cut in half.

The script is largely pictorial but there are various types of signs.

These comprise principally:

logogrammes: one word is written with one sign

phonogrammes: signs which convey the sounds which constitute the word

determinatives: signs which convey the general category of action to which the word belongs

A single word can be written with a combination of these types of signs. Alphabetic signs existed but these were rarely used on their own. There was no fixed number of signs and new ones were devised when necessary, such as, for example, when the horse and chariot was introduced into Egypt in the middle of the second millennium BCE. A total of over 6,000 signs were used during the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods; in general less than 1,000 were in use and only some 700 were employed in Middle Egyptian. Contrary to popular belief, hieroglyphic script is phonetic and the exact meaning of a word is not conveyed appearance or identification of the signs with which it is written.

Hieroglyphic texts may be written from right to left, the most common, or left to right, in either horizontal or vertical columns. Horizontal arrangement is more common, but location of the text could determine which was used. The text is written continuously without punctuation, grammatical forms indicating what we would term the beginning of a new sentence or paragraph. Each word is written separately with its own group of signs in one block and each sign is distinct. Aesthetic considerations could also determine the order in which words or signs were written; the compositions had to conform to the ancient sense of harmony and balance. Similarly honorific considerations determined the sequence of words in compounds employing the word for god or king, e.g.,

temple = mansion of the god is written god/divine mansion

queen = wife of the king is written king/royal wife

royal scribe = scribe of the king is written king/royal scribe

palace = house/mansion of the king is written king/royal house

These examples may be compared with the more common construction employed in, e.g., army scribe which is written scribe of the army where the two nouns scribe and army are placed in direct apposition. It may also be noted here that they reverse the standard word order wherein an adjective follows its noun.

A cursive form of the script was in use from the Middle Kingdom onwards for inscriptions upon coffins, the so-called Coffin Texts, and in the often illuminated compilations of mortuary texts which are termed The Book of the Dead. It first occurs in the First Dynasty.Finally, it is worth noting that Egyptian hieroglyphic script appear to have influenced the development of Protosinaitic from which later Semitic scripts, and ultimately Greek and Latin scripts, are derived.

Hieratic
This is another cursive form of the hieroglyphic script which was in regular use from the early Old Kingdom in the Fourth Dynasty. The name is again derived from Greek meaning "sacred script". It was given this name because during the Ptolemaic Period it was used primarily for religious texts, for which use it was largely restricted since circa 600. Since its original development and until that time it was employed for a wide range of purposes including in administration and business, and the writing of literary, scientific and mathematical texts. It occurs written mainly upon papyrus and ostraka in ink, although a few monumental inscriptions in hieratic are known. It was the daily script for nearly two and a half thousand years. Hieratic can be written in vertical or horizontal rows, the latter being more common, always right to left. Different styles of hieratic existed with major differences between business and literary hieratic. From business hieratic there developed abnormal hieratic and demotic with major distinctions between the types used in the Delta region and in the Valley. It was in use until the third century CE.

Demotic
This is the most cursive and difficult to read of all of the scripts and it is often difficult to identify the proto-types from which several of the signs developed. Its name, again from the Greek, means "popular script"; in Egyptian it was called "script of documents", reflecting its common use for legal, administrative and commercial documents. It developed form the hieratic business hands used in the Delta and replaced hieratic as the daily script from circa 600. The latest dated text in demotic script is from 450 CE.

Coptic
This is the last script to have been developed for the writing of ancient Egyptian. It employs the Greek alphabet supplemented by six letters derived from demotic which are used for sounds which do not occur in Greek. It is written from left to right. The development of the script began in the first century BCE, but its use is particularly associated with the diffusion of Christianity throughout Egypt so much so that it can be regarded as a Christian script. The earliest texts written in Coptic are all religious; it was used for private letters, but not commonly until the fourth century. The archives of Coptic letters found at Ismant el-Kharab are amongst the oldest of their type known.

I: Literacy
It is estimated than during the Pharaonic Period literacy was restricted to only one percent of the population; this increased to about 10 percent during the Ptolemaic Period. Professional scribes were employed in all branches of the civil, religious and military administration and their ability to read and write earned them a prestigious position in society.

This is clearly reflected in ancient texts excerpts from two of which follow:

Be a scribe, take it to heart,

That your name become as theirs.

Better is a book than a grave stela,

Than a solid tomb-enclosure. .........

Man decays, his corpse is dust,

All his kin have perished;

But a book makes him remembered

Through the mouth of its reciter.

Better is a book than a well-built house...

I have seen beatings -

Set your heart on books!

I watched those seized for labor -

There's nothing better than books!

It's like a boat on water. .........

I'll make you love scribedom more than your mother,

I'll make its beauties stand before you;

It's the greatest of all callings,

There's none like it in the land.

Elementary training was undertaken in schools associated with offices of the administration and religious institutions by copying texts written in cursive hieroglyphic and then in hieratic. Advanced training in specialised fields was done using texts specially created for the purpose. Examples of such exercises survive. Whether all high-ranking officials were literate is uncertain, though undoubtedly many were. Similar uncertainty surrounds the level of literacy of the king, though again we can assume that they were all literate to some degree. There is a rare scene depicting the future Ramesses II (1279-1212) reciting a request for offerings to be made to his royal ancestors in the temple erected by his father at Abydos, and a scribe's palette was included amongst the equipment buried with Tutankhamun (1331-1321) in his tomb in the Valley of the Kings. Kleopatra VII (51-30) is the only member of the Ptolemaic family known to have been literate in Egyptian.

II: The Decipherment of Ancient Egyptian and the Rosetta Stone
Knowledge of all but the Coptic script ceased entirely in the fifth century CE, but a major decline can already be detected from the second century. This situation lasted for over 1,300 years. Classical writers believed that hieroglyphs were symbolic and imbued with secret meaning; such beliefs were held in the Renaissance and dominated until the study of the Rosetta Stone, discovered in July 1799. It was found built into the wall of a house at Rosetta (el-Rashid) by a member of Napoleon Bonaparte's army which had occupied Egypt, one Pierre Bouchard. The significance of the text was recognised by members of Napoleon's team of scientists who were sent to Egypt to record all aspects of the country, when they read at the end of the Greek section:

(It has been decided) to inscribe this decree on a stela of hard stone, in sacred and native and Greek characters and to set it up in each of the first and second [and third rank temples next to the image of the everliving king.]

It was thus realised that the inscriptions recorded the same text in two languages. It was ceded to the British following their defeat of the French in 1801 and entered the British Museum in 1802.

The Rosetta Stone is a black basalt block measuring 1.18 x 0.77 x 0.30 metres, weighing 762 kg. It commemorates the decision by the senior priests of Egypt on 27th March 196 BCE to inaugurate the official cult of the reigning king, Ptolemy V, following his coronation in Egyptian style. This took place in the actual ninth year of the king's reign; Ptolemy V was the first of his line to undergo a coronation according to Egyptian tradition. The celebrations were held at Memphis, and thus the decree is known as the Memphis Decree. It preserves copies of the text of the decree written in ancient Egyptian, in both hieroglyphic and demotic scripts, and Greek. The top, right side and bottom right corner of the block are damaged. The hieroglyphic version of the decree is the least well preserved, and occupies the top section; in the middle is the demotic and the Greek is in the lowest section. It is the best preserved of several copies of the decree which were produced throughout the king's reign (205-180).

Copies of the texts upon the Rosetta Stone were circulated to leading academic institutions in Europe. The reading of the Greek text was a relatively easy matter; the true nature of the Egyptian scripts took until 1824 to determine. Early study focused upon the demotic text and attempts to isolate those sections which corresponded to the Greek and Macedonian names. This was done because the names occur at the beginning of the inscription, which is lost in the hieroglyphic but preserved in the demotic; there was also a belief that demotic was not a symbolic script unlike the hieroglyphic. In 1802 Silvestre de Sacy (1758-1832) read in the demotic the names of Ptolemy and Alexander, and in the same year his student Johan Akerblad (1763-1819) deciphered the remaining Greek and Macedonian names. They showed that the demotic in the names employed alphabetic signs. During the course of the second decade of the 1800s Thomas Young (1773-1829) deciphered the demotic groups for several words other than names, and determined that demotic was a mixed script with both alphabetic signs and others denoting words or ideas. He identified connections between the demotic and hieroglyphic scripts, relying heavily upon the cartouches. These are the ovals in which the royal names are written; he read these in both sections of the Egyptian scripts. Despite these breakthroughs he still believed that the hieroglyphic script was essentially symbolic, and as a result he progressed no further.

The final crucial steps were taken by Jean-Francois Champollion (1790-1832). He was a skilled linguist and had focused his research on hieratic and hieroglyphic scripts; he also believed that Coptic, which he could read, was actually ancient Egyptian language but written in Greek letters. While he first concurred with the prevailing belief that the hieroglyphic script was symbolic, by 1822 he had abandoned this and was able to show that it contained phonetic signs and others expressing ideas/words, and that Coptic vocabulary could provide the meaning of words written in the earlier scripts once their phonetic values were known. Within two years he could accurately read a range of royal names written in hieroglyphs and produced his famous Precis of the hieroglyphic writing system. This formed the basis for all future work on Egyptian language. In his studies he drew upon a wide range of monuments, both within Egypt and Europe and various publications of Egyptian texts which had appeared, of which the Rosetta Stone was but one. However, the inscriptions upon the stone continued to be an important tool for scholars following in Champollion's wake who wished to test the validity of his ideas. Champollion's discoveries opened the door to the decipherment of Egyptian scripts and language. Their detailed study continued throughout the remainder of the Nineteenth Century, by numerous scholars throughout Europe, and by its end Egyptian could once again be read. One of the most prolific publishers of and authorities on ancient Egyptian texts at the end of the Nineteenth and early in the Twentieth Centuries was Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, Curator of Egyptian and Near Eastern Antiquities at the British Museum. Several of his works are exhibited in the exhibition. The Twentieth Century has seen the refinement of our understanding of the various stages of the language, but demotic continues to be a very specialised field of study.

Exhibits 1. Djehuty, god of wisdom, before the creator, Ra-Horakhty; Djehuty is entitled Master of Divine Speech. Ink upon papyrus

2. A scribe’s writing equipment and sheet of papyrus inscribed in hieratic

Wood, faience, reed, and ink upon papyrus

The equipment used by the scribes for writing upon papyrus comprised a pen made from a reed one end of which was beaten to release the fibres, a pot for water - here made of blue faience - and a palette which held the dry black and red pigments. Red was used for headings or to introduce new sections.

3. Fragment of a Sealing from a Storage Jar

Mud

Abydos

Early Dynastic Period, First Dynasty, Reign of King Den, early Third Millennium

Large conical sealings made of mud were used to close the mouths of ceramic storage jars which contained commodities buried in tombs and which were thought to be essential to the survival of the deceased in the afterlife. Those from royal and elite tombs were impressed with a seal into which the name of the tomb owner or the provider of the commodity had been carved in hieroglyphic script; the names stand out in relief. Those upon this fragment are poorly preserved but give the king’s name; a copy of the same inscription but from a better preserved example is displayed to illustrate its full form.

4. strakon with part of “The Instruction of Amenemhat I for his Son”

Ceramic and ink

Malkata

New Kingdom, mid-Eighteenth Dynasty, reign of Amenhotep III, 1391-1352

This potsherd preserves a small fragment from the famous literary text composed in the reign of Senwosret I (1974-1929), second king of the Twelfth Dynasty in the Middle Kingdom. It claims to have been written posthumously by that king’s father and offers advise to Senwosret following the assassination of Amenemhat by his bodyguard. This text is one of the pieces of Wisdom Literature which were extremely popular in Egypt and which survived for centuries, constantly being copied and re-copied. The present extract may have been part of a larger piece possibly copied out for scribal practice; it is written in hieratic. Alongside a facsimile copy of the text a transcription into hieroglyphic script is given to illustrate the cursive form taken by the signs in hieratic.

5. Part of a Funerary Cone

Ceramic

Thebes

New Kingdom, Eighteenth to Nineteenth Dynasties, 1550-1186

Conical-shaped, ceramic funerary cones were set into the facades of tomb entrances during the New Kingdom at Thebes, modern Luxor in Upper Egypt. Their faces carry in raised relief the names and titles of the tomb owner in hieroglyphic script.

6. Jar

Ceramic, ink and pigment

Provenance Unknown

New Kingdom - Third Intermediate Period, Nineteenth to Twenty-Fourth Dynasties, 1295-715

Ceramic jars of this type were used to contain either the internal organs of the deceased which were removed during the first stages of mummification and preserved as items necessary to the functioning of the body in the afterlife, or sometimes small servant statues. The latter would act as a substitute for their owner when he/she was called upon to perform manual labour in the next life. The jar is decorated with figure, drawn in ink, of the four genii who protected the internal organs - these are the Four Sons of Horus, son of Osiris, god of resurrection. The names of the genii - Imset, Hapy, Duamutef and Qebehsenuef - were regularly written alongside the figures and texts giving the owner’s name and an invocation to Osiris might also occur, in hieroglyphic or cursive hieroglyphic script. None is preserved upon this example.

7. Servant Statue of Paabumekh

Faience

Provenance Unknown

Late Period, Twenty-Sixth Dynasty, 664-525 BCE

Paabumekh was a Royal Chancellor and this exalted position is reflected in quality of the figure. The hieroglyphic inscriptions on the front of the figure give his name and titles followed by the standard text which compels the figurine to work in place of its owner in the next life. To enable it to do so it carries a basket, hoe and mattock. The text on the figure, which is called a shabti (answerer) in Egyptian, is an example of the belief in the power of the written word to produce an action or event, in this case after death. The figure must and will answer the call for it to work for its owner. Such figures were produced in vast quantities from the New Kingdom onwards until the Ptolemaic Period; there could be as many as one for every day of the year and additionally overseers with whips for every ten worker figures included in a single tomb.

8. Two Scarab Seals

Faience

Provenance Unknown

Late Period, Twenty-Fifth Dynasty, 715-664 BCE

These two scarab seals are inscribed in hieroglyphic with their owners’ name. One bears the name of King Taharqo (689-664) and the other of the Princess Shepenwepet, who was God’s Wife of Amun at the Temple of Karnak in Thebes. The scarab beetle symbolised the sun god on his rising, named Kheperi, and was a potent amulet conveying the concept of resurrection. They are common from the late Old Kingdom onwards and could be worn as jewellery offering protection to their wearer. They were also used for administrative purpose to impress into mud seals attached to documents, doors or containers and were carved with a wide range of decorative devices, names and titles.

9. Fragment of Coptic Text

Ink on papyrus

Provenance Unknown

Post-Fifth Century CE

The nature of the text inscribed upon this small fragment is not identifiable from what survives; it is included as an example of the script.

10. Budge, E. A. Wallis (Ernest Alfred Wallis), Sir, 1857-1934.

The Book of the dead : facsimile of the papyrus of Ani in the British Museum. 2nd ed. (London : British Museum, 1894)

The section on display is Chapter CXLVII of the so-called Book of the Dead, a collection of spells designed to assisted the deceased in her/his journey through the underworld in overcoming any opposition which might be faced, and to enable a successful afterlife to be obtained. The spells, written in cursive hieroglyphic and hieratic, accompany painted vignettes; these papyri are the oldest surviving illuminated manuscripts. They were produced from the New Kingdom to Ptolemaic Period for officials, priests/priestesses, and members of the royal family, though not rulers. In Chapter CXLVII here the scribe Ani and his wife are shown passing through the Seven Gates of Arit and the Ten Pylons of Osiris; the text is written in cursive hieroglyphic. The papyrus dates to the Nineteenth Dynasty, 1295-1186.

11. Budge, E. A. Wallis (Ernest Alfred Wallis), Sir, 1857-1934.

The book of the dead : facsimiles of the papyri of Hunefer, Anhai, Kerasher and Netchemet with supplementary text from the Papyrus of Nu with transcripts, translations, etc. / by E.A. Wallis Budge. (London : printed by order of the Trustees, sold at the British Museum, and by Longmans & Co. ... , 1899)

Chapter CXXV of the Book of the Dead of Hunefer is exhibited. Hunefer was Scribe of the Divine Offerings and Overseer of the Cattle of King Seti I (1294-1279). The inclusion of this chapter was obligatory in any collection of spells taken from the wide range which might be included. It assured that the owner of the papyrus would successfully undergo the weighing of her/his heart against the feather of truth on the day of judgement. The heart was thought to contain a record of one’s life and so the symbolic weighing determined suitability to enter the next world. This weighing was accompanied by an interrogation by the Forty-Two Assessors Gods, and took place in the presence of Osiris. Following a successful examination the deceased was then presented to Osiris. The text describing these events and ensuring their success is written in cursive hieroglyphic.

12. Budge, E. A. Wallis (Ernest Alfred Wallis), Sir, 1857-1934.

The Greenfield papyrus in the British museum : the funerary papyrus of Princess Nesitanebtashru, Daughter of Painetchem II and Nesi-Khensu, and Priestess of Amen-Ra at Thebes, about B.C. 970. / reproduced in collotype facsimile, with introduction and description by E.A. Wallis Budge. (London : Printed by Order of the Trustees, 1912)

This facsimile edition contains the papyrus of Nestanebtasheru, the daughter of the Pinodjem II, High Priest of Amun at Karnak in Thebes in the Twenty-First Dynasty (1070-945). The section illustrated depicts offerings being made to the mummy of the deceased before her theoretical tomb as part of the Opening of the Mouth Ceremony. This enabled the mummy to see, hear, breathe and live in the next life. A gruesome part of this ritual involved the severing of the right foreleg from a living calf and its offering to the mummy; this symbolised the restoration of vitality and strength. The texts are written in hieratic.

13. Budge, E. A. Wallis (Ernest Alfred Wallis), Sir, 1857-1934.

The Decrees of Memphis and Canopus / E.A. Wallis Budge. (London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1904)

The Canopus Decree was issued in 238 BCE, the ninth year of the reign of Ptolemy III and deals with temple reorganisation, honours to the royal family and the calendar. The ancient Egyptian calendar of twelve months with 365 days was officially adopted by the Ptolemies, and this, with some modifications, is the origin of that which we now use. Like the Memphis Decree on the Rosetta Stone it is a bilingual inscription written in Greek and Egyptian, in hieroglyphic and demotic scripts, sections of each of which are exhibited from Budge’s publication.

14. Budge, E. A. Wallis (Ernest Alfred Wallis), Sir, 1857-1934.

Easy lessons in Egyptian hieroglyphics with sign list : by E.A. Wallis Budge. 3rd ed. (London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1910)

Examples of signs lists with their suggested phonetic equivalents which are now obsolete.

15. Budge, E. A. Wallis (Ernest Alfred Wallis), Sir, 1857-1934.

An Egyptian reading book / compiled by E.A. Wallis Budge. (London : D. Nutt, 1888)

This volume contains a collection of Egyptian texts in hieroglyphic script. The section exhibited is from Ramesses II’s records of the Battle of Kadesh which he fought in the fifth year of his reign (1275 BCE) against the Hittites from Anatolia.

16. Budge, E. A. Wallis (Ernest Alfred Wallis), Sir, 1857-1934.

The Rosetta stone in the British Museum : the Greek, demotic, and hieroglyphic texts of the decree inscribed on the Rosetta stone conferring additional honours on Ptolemy V Epiphanes (203-181 B.C.) with English translations and a short history of the decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphs, and an appendix containing translations of the stelae of San (Tanis) and Tall al-Maskhutah / by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge. (London : Religious Tract Society, 1929)

Plate IX illustrates examples of Thomas Young’s 1814 word list with examples from hieroglyphic and demotic.

17. Budge, E. A. Wallis (Ernest Alfred Wallis), Sir, 1857-1934.

Cleopatra's needles and other Egyptian obelisks : a series of descriptions of all the important inscribed obelisks, with hieroglyphic texts, translations, etc. / by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge. (London : Religious Tract Society, 1926)

The illustration shows the famous Kingston Lacey obelisk which was used by Champollion in his pioneering studies which led to the decipherment of hieroglyphics. The obelisk originated from the Temple of Philae and was erected there by Ptolemy IX

18. Budge, E. A. Wallis (Ernest Alfred Wallis), Sir, 1857-1934.

The dwellers on the Nile : chapters on the life, history, religion and literature of the ancient Egyptians. (London : Religious Tract Society, 1926)

This illustration depicts the two sides of the Palette of Narmer, the first ruler of Dynasty One. The hieroglyphic texts give the king’s name in a rectangle (the serekh) at the top of the palette and the group to the right of the smiting figure of the king may visually convey the idea that the falcon god Horus assisted Narmer in his battles.

19. Budge, E. A. Wallis (Ernest Alfred Wallis), Sir, 1857-1934.

The mummy : a handbook of Egyptian funerary archaeology. 2nd ed. rev. and greatly enl. (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1925)

The opening shows royal names written in cartouches, including those of Kleopatra VII and the Roman Emperor Augustus who defeated her in 31 BCE and annexed Egypt to Rome the following year.

20. Laughton, George, 1736-1800.

The history of ancient Egypt. (London : Printed for T. Cadell, 1774)

21. Wathen, George Henry.

Arts, antiquities and chronology of ancient Egypt, from observations in 1839 / by George H. Wathen. (London : Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1843)

The names of a selection of Egyptian kings are given in cartouches.

22. Nicholson, Charles, Sir, 1808-1903.

Aegyptiaca : comprising acatalogue of Egyptian antiquities collected in the years 1856, 1857, and now deposited in the museum of the University of Sydney : together with an account of some remains of the 'disk worshippers' : as also of some funereal hieroglyphic inscriptions found at Memphis : accompanied also by a fac-simile and translation from a hieratic papyrus containing portions of the Book of the dead / By Sir Charles Nicholson. (London : Harrison and Sons, printers to Her Majesty, 1891)

Nicholson formed a collection of Egyptian antiquities which he donated to the University of Sydney and is now housed in the Nicholson Museum, University of Sydney. The illustration shows fragments of funerary papyri inscribed in hieratic script.

23. Wilkinson, John Gardner, Sir, 1797-1875.

A popular account of the Ancient Egyptians : revised and abridged from his larger work / by Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson. (London : John Murray, 1854) 2 v.

The frontespiece of this volume shows a scene in the Twelfth Dynasty Tomb of Djehutyhotep at el-Bersheh in which a colossal statue of the tomb owner is being transported on rollers pulled by large numbers of men.

24. Breasted, James H.

A history of Egypt, from the earliest times to the Persian conquest, 2nd ed., fully rev. (New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1912)

25. Carter, Howard, 1873-1939.

Tut-ench-Amun : ein agyptisches Konigsgrab entdeckt von Earl of Carnarvon und Howard Carter / Howard Carter. (Leipzig : Brockhaus, 1924-1934) 3 v. (Translation of: The tomb of Tutenkhamen. Carter, H. and A. C. Mace.)

26. Gardiner, Alan. H. (Alan Henderson), 1879-1963.

The Wilbour papyrus / ed. by Alan H. Gardiner. (Oxford : U.P. for the Brooklyn Museum, 1941)

Sir Alan Gardiner was one of the foremost authorities on ancient Egyptian language in the mid-Twentieth Century. In this publication he edited the extensive record of temple holdings compiled in the reign of Ramesses V (1147-1143) of the Twentieth Dynasty, written in hieratic.

27. Gardiner, Alan H. (Alan Henderson), 1879-1963.

The inscriptions of Sinai / from manuscripts of Alan H. Gardiner and T. Eric Peet. 2nd ed. / rev. and augmented by Jaroslav Cerny. (London : Egypt Exploration Society, 1952-1955) 2 v.

This volume publishes the rock-cut inscriptions in Sinai, mostly left to commemorate official mining expeditions for either turquoise or copper throughout Egyptian history. Those illustrated in the exhibition are in hieroglyphic and are to be found in the Wadi Maghara, near the west coast of Sinai. They illustrate both royal and private figures; the kings are regularly shown smiting a captive from the region, symbolising Egyptian domination.

28/29. University of Chicago. Oriental Institute. Epigraphic Survey.

The tomb of Kheruef : Theban tomb 192 / by the Epigraphic Survey in cooperation with the Department of Antiquities of Egypt. (Chicago, Ill. : Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1980)

Kheruef was a high-ranking official in the reigns of Amenhotep III (1391-1352) and his son Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten; 1352-1336) of the Eighteenth Dynasty. These illustrations show the former king enthroned with his wife, Queen Tiye, during celebrations which were held to mark his first 30 years on the throne.

30. Facsimile Drawing of the Rosetta Stone from

The Rosetta Stone : facsimile drawing / with an introduction and translations by Stephen Quirke and Carol Andrews. (London : Published for the Trustees of the British Museum by British Museum Publications, 1988)

The site of Ismant el-Kharab was known anciently by its Greek name of Kellis and is described in the texts as a village belonging to the Nome (administrative district) of the Mothites. This nome was named after its capital located at Mothis, modern-day Mut, in the central part of Dakhleh Oasis. It would seem to have been founded in the first century CE, although there is a small body of evidence which hints at a possible Ptolemaic Period settlement on the site. The site flourished as an agricultural community until the end of the fourth century when, for reasons as yet not fully known, it was abandoned. The latest dated text discovered so far is a horoscope which was cast in 392; by this time some parts of the site may already have been vacated. Possible reasons for deserting the site may have been the encroachment of sand dunes, failing water supplies and salination, all perennial problems in the Oasis.

The site is located on the eastern edge of a central belt of cultivation, 15 km ENE of ancient Mothis; to its west a strip of desert separates the site from another area of cultivation. The desert between these two areas contains few ancient sites indicating that the current topography of the region resembles the ancient. Kellis was built upon a low terrace standing four to six metres above the surrounding plain; there are dried up water courses (wadis) on its south and north. On the south there are traces of ancient field systems. The water supply for agriculture and domestic use was provided by several artesian wells. Within a radius of several kilometres around the site are the remains of various smaller ancient settlements which may have been dependent upon it.

The present extent of the site is 1050 m NE-SW and 650 m NW-SE, though how much of this was occupied at the same time is uncertain. Set slightly apart from the area of occupation are the cemeteries. Those to the north and south comprise subterranean burials over which stand mud-brick chapels which were once coated with white plaster and several are adorned with niches and pilasters attached to the walls. They are probably the family tombs of the more affluent villagers dating from the first to second centuries. In the low hills to the west and north-west of the site the graves are cut into the soft sandstone, shale and clay; they are undecorated, and although this cemetery has been plundered, the remains of the elaborately painted body coverings, some with gilded faces, indicate that both the middle-class and average villager were buried here from the first to third centuries. The final cemetery lies on the north-east; it is a densely packed area of mostly simple pit graves oriented east-west. They contain little in the way of grave goods and it is surmised that those buried here were Christians of the late third and fourth centuries. From a study of the human remains from the cemeteries an average life expectancy was about forty.

The decoration of the Main Temple, built of sandstone, was restricted to a large cult relief in the sanctuary, and offering scenes on door jambs and lintels. Although the temple has been largely dismantled, its blocks to be reused elsewhere, enough survives of the decoration to show that the lintel of the main door into the temple was decorated under the Emperor Hadrian (117-138), while other parts were decorated under the Emperor Pertinax. The latter reigned for three months only in 193, and the occurrence of his name written in hieroglyphs at this site is the only one known from Egypt. Additions were made to the temple into the third century. Few records of priests of Tutu survive at the site but one, called Stonios, is known from several documents, one of which identifies him as a priest of this god as late as 335. The cult of Tutu cannot have survived to much longer; certainly during the mid- to late fourth century the temple was being used for secular activities and even the dumping of rubbish. Despite this fragments of the original temple furnishings survive, including those from gilded wooden shrines, statues and altars. Amongst the statue fragments are many representing the various forms of Isis, who was probably represented in life-size form in limestone statues erected in front of the temple. Remarkably, a small but fine painting of this goddess upon wood also survived, dating from the third century.

Due west of the Main Temple lies the West Temple, the architecture of which copies that of the Main Temple, and its is likewise set within an enclosure containing subsidiary buildings with traces of classical wall paintings. Its core was built of sandstone and it was decorated in raised relief; it was dedicated to Neith and Tapshay. Other main structures in Area D include the West Tombs and West Church. These are back to back, both within an enclosure to the north of the Main Temple. The West Tombs were once the most imposing mausolea on the site. There are two structures, side by side, apparently of the same type though both are poorly preserved.

They comprise a single vaulted burial chamber of stone, surmounted by a platform approached by steps upon which was once a single-roomed chapel surrounded by a peristyle colonnade. Little survives of the superstructure of Tomb 2 on the north, but Tomb 1 had a colonnade of baked-brick columns with winged Medusa heads set in tondos on their capitals and this was topped with an Ionic order entablature. They are the only tombs of their type recorded in Egypt and apparently copy a prototype which once existed in Alexandria and which is represented on second-century coins minted there. Tombs of similar type exist over 2,000 km to the west in Wadi Ghirza, Libya. Tomb 1 contained the burials of 11 individuals who may have died in the third century, though the tomb is probably considerably older than this. The West Church was built in the mid-fourth century. It is a two-roomed structure entered via an adjacent building which was probably of a domestic nature. It is situated in the most north-westerly part of the site and access to it is only achieved from the west - there is no communication between it and other structures.

Proceeding east from the Main Temple a ceremonial route on the temple’s axis leads through a complex of mud-brick buildings which appear to be a mixture of residential, storage and administrative structures, to the entrance into the enclosure in which they stand. Beyond this lies the south-central part of the site, Area A. This is primarily a residential area containing houses of varying sizes arranged along a few east-west lanes but with many others at random. One house complex (no. 4) has been investigated on the west in front of the entrance into the building complex of Area D just mentioned, as have three others (nos 1-3) on the north side of the area and a fifth one (no. 5) on its east edge. Excavation of the latter has only started, but the other structures have yielded the vast majority of the texts found to date, particularly House 3 which was a veritable treasure trove preserving several family archives written in Greek and Coptic and numerous religious and administrative documents. This material, associated with a wide variety of domestic objects and coins, provides an excellent glimpse into the life of the village in the fourth century, to which date they mostly belong.

The presence of the West Church and the East Church Complex (see below), both visible at surface level, clearly showed that the inhabitants had converted to Christianity, and it was first assumed that this would have been orthodox or Catholic Christianity. However, texts from various houses written in both Greek and Coptic showed that from the mid-fourth century at least there was a Manichaean community at Kellis. This sect, branded as heretical and persecuted, was founded by Mani in the third century and combined gnostic, Zoroastrian and Christian elements, though they regarded themselves as the true Christians. Mani’s followers rivalled early orthodox Christians in their missionary zeal and the religion spread throughout the Roman Empire in the west and as far east as China. The Kellis community corresponded with leaders of their faith in the Nile Valley and the texts they produced include much that is vital to the study of their early beliefs and practices, including substantial extracts from The Epistles of Mani. Much of this is written in the Lycopolite dialect of Coptic and this shows the widespread use of that language throughout Egypt by the fourth century. This community is the only one of its date which can be studied in a full context.

Manichaean religious text inscribed upon a wooden codex from House 3 Room 4

There was certainly a sizeable orthodox community at the site also. This is undoubtedly attested by the building of the East Church Complex on the extreme east of Area A. This comprises a large main, basilica church entered from a complex of structures on its west, and a smaller chapel to its west. The latter preserves traces of wall paintings in its apse. The main church is preserved to almost four metres in height on its north-west, and could certainly have held in excess of 200 people. Its walls are covered with white plaster with no traces of paintings except in the apse, the cupola of which was decorated with yellow flowers on a purple ground. At least one sizeable crux ansata was incorporated into the design; this is the cross used by the early Egyptian Christians (Copts) and which is derived from the ancient Egyptian sign for life. Extremely rare fragments of painted glass were found in the church; unfortunately it is too incomplete to determine the composition of the scene or scenes but they certainly included human figures. These panels were probably mounted in wooden frames and hung upon a wall. The coins found within the church indicate that it was erected in the early fourth century, approximately contemporary with the Emperor Constantine the Great (324-337) under whom Christianity became the religion of the Roman Empire. This church is thus one of the oldest surviving in Egypt.

North of Area A lies Area B, which contains three heterogeneous building complexes. The southernmost comprises a frequently enlarged structure with over 200 rooms. Only parts of its largest room have been examined. This is a large colonnaded court which once stood at least six metres in height and was open to the sky. The lower part of its walls were again decorated with classical wall paintings; part of one of its side chambers has been exposed and the walls carry numerous graffiti, several showing soldiers and one which may be erotic. The building has been thought to be administrative in function, though a village the size of Kellis would not have warranted such an imposing centre. One of its rooms, yet to be examined, is lined with niches or cupboards and superficially resembles a library. This building originated in the first-second centuries and was reused throughout the life of the community, witnessing drastic changes of function, including conversion to a stable and use by squatters in the fourth century. To its north lies a rambling series of domestic buildings and then what most resemble substantial villas, many with wall paintings.

The examination of the final part of the site to be described, Area C, has barely commenced. This is situated east of Area B and it comprises the north-east sector of the site. Two small test areas have been opened, one each on two of its three low mounds. These tests and the study of the remains visible on the surface indicate that it is a residential and possibly industrial area. Inscribed potsherds (ostraka) found in the excavations date to the second and third centuries indicating that this part of the site was developed earlier than Area A. On the southern edge of the area there are mounds of ash and kiln debris. This may indicate that pottery was manufactured nearby and a geomagnetic and resistivity survey carried out in the region in 1998 indicated the presence of a series of structures which have been exposed to heat and which may be kilns. Several fragments of metal slag have also been found on the surface here.

31. Initial Survey Plan of Ismant el-Kharab

This plan was begun in 1982 when the Dakhleh Oasis Project commenced its study of the site of Ismant el-Kharab. It shows the basic topography of the site and the location of some of the main structures which were visible at surface level, plus annotations by the architect/surveyor concerning the location and identity of other features. It is the work of James E. Knudstad.

32. Survey Plan of Ismant el-Kharab, scale 1:250

The above-ground preservation of many of the monuments at the site was such that it was decided to produce a detailed plan of all surface remains. This would show much of the lay out of the village as it was in its final stage of settlement. It includes Areas A-B and D; little other than isolated walls was visible in Area C. It also includes some of the structures excavated in Area A. The study of the surface architecture and lay out of the village has been the work of James E. Knudstad.

33. View of the Main Temple before Excavation

This view, taken in 1991, looks north-east across the surface of the Main Temple to the North Tombs and shows the good preservation of the latter. The location of the temple is marked by a scatter of sandstone on the surface of a depression.

34. The Forecourt of the Main Temple

The excavation of the Main Temple commenced in 1991 with the clearance of the main doorway into the temple, its outer rooms and the forecourt. This view, looking south-west, show the double doorway on the right and a large niche, once closed with doors, to its south. A portico comprising four large baked-brick columns was constructed in front to the entrance possibly in the second or early third centuries (more probably the former). These columns have a diameter of 80 cm and undoubtedly stood to a height of five to six metres and supported an Ionic order entablature; the bases of the columns were encircled with plaster acanthus leaves. In the third century sandstone pedestals were erected in front of the columns, and probably supported life-size limestone statues. The top of one of the pedestals has depressions in the shape of feet carved into it. Fragments of limestone statues were found amongst the debris of the forecourt, including several which may be identified as from statues of the goddess Isis. A few pieces derive from a figure or figures of Serapis, the patron deity of the Ptolemaic family, who was identified with Osiris. Two of the pedestals preserved parts of an identical inscription, written in Greek, commemorating the public office of Aurelius Ophelianos. The forecourt also yielded fragments from the decorated lintels which once topped the doorway into the temple.

35. The Main Temple looking East after Excavation

This view shows the poor state of preservation of the temple. It has been dismantled almost to foundation level throughout. This was done probably before the site was abandoned as there is no sand deposit between the temple floors and rubble from the dismantling. Many of the building blocks were found distributed across the temple and also gathered together at its rear preparatory to removal. However, the stratigraphy of the area shows that following this phase and substantial collapse from the structures around the temple and its enclosure walls followed by the accumulation of sand deposits, pits were dug through all of this material to remove more blocks. These were taken out through the rear gateway and also to the north. When this occurred is uncertain. On the extreme east the location of the double stone gateway into the temple enclosure can be seen between the mud-brick walls.

36. Work in the Main Temple Enclosure looking West

Following the excavation of the Main Temple attention was turned to the other structures within the enclosure, though the shrine to the south of the temple, Shrine I (the mamissi) has been in the process of excavation since work in the temple commenced. This shrine is visible on the upper right of the photograph. Shrine II can be seen on the north of the temple and Shrine III in the foreground on the right. Both of these shrines witnessed various modifications to their original layouts and it is possible that Shrine III was used as a scriptorium judging from the quantity of pens found there.

37. Double Gateway into the Inner Temple Enclosures

Providing access into the inner enclosure of the Main Temple is a double stone gateway set into two mud-brick walls around the temple. These were apparently undecorated, although as their lintels have not been recovered as yet the possibility remains that either one or both of these carried decoration. Unusually, the pavement in each gate and in the area between them is of limestone whereas the remainder of the temple is built in sandstone. Limestone is otherwise only encountered with sculpture. The space between the two enclosure walls is filled with chambers. These were on two levels and part of the second level is preserved south of the gates, as can be seen in this view. At a late stage access into the gate area was block by a mud-brick wall at the east end. The gate area witnessed intense burning and was filled to surface level with collapse from the surrounding walls and rooms.

38. Classical Paintings in Shrine IV

The walls of Shrine IV in the south-east corner of the Main Temple enclosure are completely covered with classical paintings. One room has been investigated; its walls preserve parts of three layers of white plaster, the upper two with paintings. This view shows the uppermost layer, which is the most elaborate and best preserved, on the north wall. The octagonal design incorporates motifs of birds, eggs in nests and a floral element. The middle layer has only been exposed in small places and is not well preserved. The lowest layer was not originally decorated but it did receive ink graffiti depicting deities venerated at Kellis. These include Seth, Tutu and a winged vulture upon one wall (from left to right, see below), and Bes upon another. The identity of the latter has yet to be established with certainty; from the New Kingdom the veneration of a goddess possibly named Nerit in the form of a vulture is attested in Dakhleh. Bes warded off evil especially in domestic contexts; Seth, god of chaos and desert regions, was the chief god of Dakhleh from the New Kingdom, and his cult temple was at Mothis. The full excavation of Shrine IV will require a major programme of conservation as it is filled with structural collapse and the painted plaster needs to be secured to the walls and conserved.

Graffiti in Shrine IV

39/40. Wells in the North-West Corner of the Main Temple Enclosure

The water supply for use within the temple for offerings and ablutions was obtained from wells located in the north-west corner of the enclosure. Excavations here, which have reached a depth of over five metres but not the original surface of the site, have revealed two successive well structures. The first was of stone and square in shape, the second was circular and of mud-brick. Contemporary with the brick well are two levels of brick chambers; those on the south preserved their barrel-vaulted roofs. The lowest level of these chambers, the base of the brick well and certainly the stone well were constructed considerably lower than the floor of the Main Temple. The brick complex may have been erected in the third or late second century. The excavations in this part of the enclosure have produced the most complicated of the building sequences to date and much further work is required to relate this sequence to that of the Main Temple.

41. Western Section of Shrine I, the mamissi

The size and elaboration of decoration of this shrine surpass that of the Main Temple, with which it is contemporary. The lowest wall register and the vault received classical style paintings while the main wall registers carry pharaonic religious scenes connected with the cult of Tutu, Neith and Tapshay. Whilst all three deities are represented in the southern half of the shrine, the northern is devoted to the goddesses only. The execution of the two styles of painting was contemporary. Despite the collapse of the vault and parts of the walls, plus intentional damage to the figures probably inflicted during the late fourth century by Christians, the entire decorative scheme can be reconstructed. This is the most important of the monuments dedicated to the cult of Tutu to have survived.

42. Shrine I, West End of the South Wall

Tutu is shown in the company of Tapshay (upper register) and Neith (lower register). The scenes have been vandalised in antiquity.

43. Shrine I, East Wall North of Doorway

This view shows a detail of the classical wall paintings with the heads of females and birds; the pharaonic figures on the door jamb has, unfortunately, not survived well. Although this decoration has been termed classical, it is interesting to observe that the birds are drawn with a distinct black outline, a feature typical of ancient Egyptian art style.

44. Retrieval of Painted Plaster Fragments in Shrine I

The collapse of Shrine I took place in two phases: first the vault and then the walls. In order to reconstruct the decorative scheme as completely as possible on paper it is essential that all fragments of painted plaster be retrieved, distinguishing those from the vault and those from the wall. Many large, well preserved sections are found, but the plaster does not always adhere to the section it once adorned. Much time, patience and skill is required in the lifting of the collapse to ensure that even the smallest pieces of decorated plaster can be recorded in association with the sections of wall or vault near which they are found. Once lifted, the decorated plaster from the blocks is removed, fragments are fitted together to complete damaged compositions or pieced together to form entire figures, then, where necessary, set into a plaster frame. This follows consolidation and cleaning. The scenes reconstructed in this way are then reproduced in facsimile copies and photographed in colour and black and white. This work is supervised by conservators and the epigrapher who is responsible for the publication of the monument. Unfortunately, the fragile nature of the ancient materials and the conditions on site render a reconstruction of the monument unthinkable, and each year on completion of the work the entire shrine is filled with sand. To leave it exposed would certainly result in vandalism and the further collapse of its walls.

45. The Emperor Pertinax Offering to Tapshay

The emperor is shown wearing an elaborate composite crown and offering a sistrum (rattle) to the goddess Tapshay. The sistrum was used during temple celebrations and was sacred to the goddess Hathor. This block was found amongst others collected together at the rear of the temple and originates from the doorway into one of the temple sanctuaries. Note the deposits of oily mud which once covered much of the surface of the piece; these resulted from the pouring of oil libations throughout the temple - often quite liberally! Pertinax ruled for only three months in 193, thus it is quite remarkable that sections of the Tutu temple were decorated in his name. One wonders whether he was actually alive when this was done, or whether he had already been assassinated and news of this had not reached the priests and officials in Kellis.

46. Bronze Figure of Tapshay

This small bronze figure of the goddess carrying a sceptre and wearing her typical crown is the only three-dimensional representation of her known to date. It was found adhering to a sandstone altar, buried in oily mud deposits within the Main Temple. It is inscribed with a dedication in Greek which refers to both Tutu and Tapshay; it may be dated to the second or third centuries. The exact role played by this goddess in the cult at Kellis is uncertain; her name means “she who is connected with fate”.

47. The Goddess Isis

This painting of the goddess upon a wooden panel was part of a larger composition along with either two or three other panels, now missing. It was found in one of the outer rooms of the Main Temple buried in earth floor deposits; it may once have been attached to one of the temple walls. The painting depicts a youthful goddess with a hair style typical of Ptolemaic queens, though it may be dated to the second or third century CE.

48. The Side from a Shrine

This piece, along with two other panels from the same shrine (see below), was found hidden in a cupboard underneath several pottery vessels in one of the outer rooms of Shrine II. It carries two representations of Isis, one at upper right and the other at lower left, and one of her sister Nephthys. The other panels depict an unnamed king and the god Onuris-Shu. The figures are identified by hieroglyphic legends. The shrine was made from gilded wood, though the gilding was extremely thin and is now poorly preserved. It would originally have contained a statue of a divinity.

49. Burials in West Tomb 1

While most of the superstructure of this unusual tomb has gone, eleven burials were found in the single burial chamber. These comprise five adults and seven sub-adults laid out approximately on an east-west orientation. Whether they were all interred at the same time is uncertain though possible; no causes of death have been determined as yet. Although there seems to have been some disturbance, probably by robbers, some of the original grave goods survived. Amongst these were glass and pottery vessels, a woven basket and a small wooden bed with a woven fibre base, part of a pulley device and a board which were used for lowering the bodies into the burial chamber, and four gold rings. One of these was a resetting of a carnelian gem engraved with a fine head of a woman with an elaborate hairstyle. Around the edge of the chamber were the remains of numerous bouquets of myrtle and rosemary. The date of the burials may be third century, based upon the shape of the glass and pottery vessels.

50. The West Church

This view, looking SE, shows the two rooms of this structure. It is identified as a church as it possesses an apse flanked by two side chambers and has a small altar in front of the apse. Against the walls of both rooms are low benches. Wooden beams found upon the floor of the inner room indicate that it had a flat roof. There has been some controversy concerning the identity of this structure and it has been suggested that it may have an official administrative building rather than a church. Against this view the following points may be noted. The building was erected in the mid-fourth century and used until the 380s as is shown by the coins found within it, and by that time Christianity was well established at Kellis. It is located on the extreme NW of the site and can only be entered from outside the main village itself, and further, only through another building which clearly served some domestic function - it has cooking facilities and also an animal manger. These features are consistent with its identification as a place of Christian worship used during the last decades of the village’s habitation; the adjacent structure could have been used to provide lodging and food for visitors to the village.

51. Two Burials Adjacent to the West Church

Against the exterior of the east wall of the West Church, at its north end, in a corridor which separates the West Church from West Tomb 2, two graves were found. These contained the skeletons of two women, one in her 20s at death and the other in her 40s; the causes of death are uncertain. There were no grave goods, although there were small pieces of linen which may indicate that they were originally wrapped; both burials were supine, oriented east-west with the head at the west - the standard Christian burial position. The pits containing the bodies were only large enough for the body; over these was a plastered mud-brick superstructure. It is possible that these two women were of importance within the Christian community at Kellis and thus were buried adjacent to the church.

52. The Large East Church

This church is located within a complex on the SE edge of Area A at the end of a lane which commences at the south-eastern corner of the complex of buildings through which passes the processional route to the Main Temple, where there are the remains of a bath house with hypocaust system. Other structures associated with the East Church are a small chapel to its south, a series of large rooms on the west and vaulted chambers on its north. It is preserved to a height of approximately four metres at the north-west corner. Originally it had a flat wooden roof supported on the large mud-brick columns; a stairway in a small room at the south-west corner indicates that there was probably a second storey, though whether this was as large as the ground level is unknown. The floor of the nave was stone-paved and wooden screens were once set between the columns, except in front of the entrance to the largest of the four chambers on the south. The entrance to this was decorated with attached columns and an arch; it undoubtedly served a religious rather than storage purpose. The walls of the church were simply white-plastered and decoration was restricted to the area of the apse. Coins found within the church indicate that it was in use from the early fourth century until the 380s; it is thus one of the oldest churches known in Egypt. Beneath the present structures on the east and south are the remains of an earlier building on the same site.

53. Crux Ansata

Painted decoration in the Large East Church was restricted to the area of the apse. Here the cupola which formed the roof over the apse was painted with yellow, four-petalled flowers on a purple background. Amongst the brick collapse from the apse area came other fragments of painted plaster amongst which were the fragments from which this red-painted crux ansata was reconstructed. Its original position cannot be determined. Smaller yellow-painted examples were found upon fragments from the columns near the apse. This was the form of the cross favoured by the early Egyptian Christians and derives from the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic sign for life, ankh.

54. The Floor of Room 6 in House 3

House 3 is the largest of a block of three houses excavated on the northern edge of Area A; work in this house was conducted in 1991 and 1992. From the outset fragments of inscribed papyrus were found, even fairly high in the sand fill. However, when the floors were reached thousand of fragments were found, some in distinct clusters associated with broken ceramic vessels in which they had been stored. The floors were also covered with the remains of a wide variety of domestic items, including furniture, baskets, pottery and glass vessels, clothing, jewellery and coins. This represents material which the occupants no longer needed at the time they abandoned the house or which they could not retrieve after the abandonment. They clearly valued the wood which had been used in the construction of the house for all of the doors and door frames, and many of the shelves, were removed for reuse elsewhere. The texts written in Greek inform us that several generations of the family of Pamour son of Psais lived in House 3, while of those in Coptic many relate to the family of Makarios. Both groups of documents were found within the same contexts and the two families were obviously closely connected if not related. The Coptic texts are mostly private letters and religious documents while the Greek ones are dominated by administrative and economic texts. Dated Greek texts and coins show that this house was occupied from the late third century until the late fourth century. The dated texts cover the period 299 - 389 and the coins cover approximately the same time span.

55. House 4

House 4 is located on the western edge of Area A close to Area D. It was thought that as Area D was in use from the first century when construction of the Main Temple of Tutu began, the part of Area A closest to it might have been in use from that date also. However, House 4 is also a fourth century construction. This house was preserved to first floor level with the vaulted roofs of the ground floor in place and the floors of the first floor intact in places. Several of the vaults had become detached from their supports and slumped; those in the two northernmost rooms were removed to provide access to the ground floor, as can be seen in this view. There are two stairways in the house which may indicate that the house was sub-divided and occupied by several family groups. It was extended on several occasions to the west; these rooms and half of the main section await excavation. Work in the house was conducted only in 1993 and not finished as it shows major areas of instability. At present surface level in one of the western rooms a woven basket was found upturned over a fine collection of glass vessels - unfortunately broken into small pieces, though many were reconstructable.

56. Colonnaded Hall in Area B Structure 1

Area B is located to the north of Area A and contains three complexes of buildings plus other structures. On the south of this area is a very large building, Structure 1, which has over 200 rooms, several of which preserve painted plaster. This building was extended on two occasions. In its extreme south there is a large colonnaded hall, the south-west corner of which was excavated in 1988. This corner is shown in the present view looking SW. The columns are made of baked brick and covered with a thick layer of white plaster. They stand on square bases; these bases and parts of the columns are painted. Their original height can be estimated at in excess of five metres. The walls of the hall preserve classical style decoration of square panels above a dado with agate design separated by pilasters with Corinthian order capitals. The shafts of the pilasters have alternately floral motifs and mottling; at the centres of the panels there were originally female heads. This painted decoration has been badly damaged as a result of secondary modifications to its architecture and drastic changes of function. While the purpose served by the building is uncertain, it was undoubtedly originally formal and of importance within the village. At some stage, however, new doors were created damaging the painted plaster, it was used as an animal stable and then sections of the structures collapsed. Above the collapse, in the fourth century, there was squatter activity. The building seems to have been erected in the second century.

57. Graffiti in Structure 1 Area B

In 1997 work was recommenced in this structure, again in the colonnaded hall, but now in its north-west corner. Further traces of wall paintings were recovered, with one panel preserving part of the bust of a helmeted figure. In a small room opening off the corner of the hall numerous charcoal graffiti were found. Amongst these are figures of soldiers and the one illustrated here. This appears to show a naked male figure lying prostrate upon a bed with legs outstretched in an erotic posture. To the left is what may be a seated figure. This and the other drawings are rather crudely executed and appear to have been done when the room had partly filled with collapse as they are too high on the wall to have been drawn standing upon the original floor of the room. Elsewhere in the colonnaded hall there are other graffiti at a similarly high level. There are horses and sections of the Greek alphabet; one carefully written line of text contains names which are characteristic of the third century onwards.

As previously mentioned, the excavations at Ismant el-Kharab have discovered large quantities of ancient inscriptions written in various languages and upon a variety of materials. These provide us with valuable basic information from which the history, economy, administration, religious beliefs and daily life of the inhabitants of the village can be reconstructed. It is only possible to illustrate and discuss a small selection in the space of this exhibition and catalogue, but it is hoped that they will indicate the wealth of data which is contained. Commentary upon the texts will be kept to a minimum and they will be allowed to speak for themselves. The translations are the work of a team of editors who are responsible for the study and publication of the documents; those included herein are the work of Dr Klaas A. Worp, University of Amsterdam (Greek), Drs Iain Gardner, University of Sydney and Anthony Alcock (Coptic), and Associate Professor Majella Franzmann, University of New England (Syriac). Many of these are included in the four volumes which have been published to date, which are also included in the exhibition. No texts in hieroglyphic Egyptian are included; the majority of those which have been found come from Shrine I of the Main Temple and contain the legends which identify the gods depicted and their actions. In this shrine there was also an inscription in hieroglyphs but only fragments of this have been found; it is religious in nature and would undoubtedly have described the significance of Tutu in the local theology.

58. Fragments of an Inscription

Fragments from several inscriptions written upon papyrus were found in the Main Temple. One may have concerned the temple itself, though the poor state of preservation makes their translation difficult. Also in demotic from the temple is a short inscription upon a pedestal mentioning Tutu which carries the remains of a Greek inscription written during the reign of Nero (54-68), and a grafitto mentioning the god Amun-nakht who was worshipped in a temple in the east of Dakhleh.

59. Books in situ in House 3

Two intact wooden codices were found in sand above the floor of the kitchen of House 2 in Area A; they are The Kellis Agricultural Account Book and The Kellis Isocrates Codex. The Agricultural Account Book contains records dealing with a four year period in either in the mid-360s or 370s and the Isocrates Codex may have been written at the same time.

60. The Kellis Agricultural Account Book

This comprises eight boards inscribed upon both sides. It contains accounts kept by the manager of an agricultural estate in Dakhleh which was owned by a couple from the city of Hibis in Khargeh Oasis to the east of Dakhleh. Records were kept of produce collected from the tenants and any amounts which they owed. Two boards are illustrated here; at the top of the board on the left are three Greek letters which may indicate that the manager was Christian.

61. Bagnall, R. G.

The Kellis Agricultural Account Book. Oxford 1997.

Translations of the texts seen in 60 are given here.

62. The Kellis Isocrates Codex

This contains orations by the fourth-century, Athenian orator Isocrates; they deal with matters relating to kingship. This version is the oldest surviving complete set of these speeches.

63. Rijksbaron, A and K. A. Worp

The Kellis Isocrates Codex. Oxford 1997.

The boards of this book, and also The Kellis Agricultural Account Book, were prevented from rubbing against each other by small pads placed at each corner. On the spine there is a series of notches which form a V-shape and indicate the correct location of each board. Margins are marked by incised lines on each board.

64. Fragments of Papyri

Main TempleMany of the pieces of inscribed papyri which are found are extremely small. It is unlikely that such small pieces will ever be reconstructed to form large fragments or complete documents. However, they must all be studied for sometimes valuable information can be retrieved from pieces even of this size.

65. Division of Property in 335

House 2

This document was witnessed by one of the few priests of Tutu known to us, Stonios son of Tepnachthes; it is the latest reference we have to a pagan priest at Kellis.

"We, the Aurelli Pekysis son of Alitous and Pebos his brother and Pachoumis another brother and Horos son of Syros and Taoup daughter of N.N., the five from the village of Kellis belonging to the city of the Mothites, send greetings to one another. Wishing to divide and that each one of us (has) from now on for all time ... we agree that we have acquired ownership, viz. I, Pekysis, of one room on the second storey of the house and of a cellar ---, I, Pebos, another room -- as far as the upper chambers of which the size is -- and the granary ---, I Pekysis as far as the upper chambers, and I, Pachoumis, another room -- the gate of Pebos until the upper rooms. and I -- and the aforesaid Horos son of Syros jointly with his sisters a room inside the gateway, and I, Taoup daughter of N.N., the room said to be in the -- and the granary --- until the upper rooms and the -- being in joint and undivided ownership by the five joint-heirs and we agree that we are in accord with this division and that it shall not be permitted to us to offend against this agreement. And if any one of us does not comply with the division, let him/her pay by way of penalty n thousand talents since we have made the division on these terms voluntarily. Let the agreement of the division, written five times in identical copies for ... (each of us?) to have a single copy for surety under the hand of the hypographeus writing for us, be authoritative and guaranteed and legal as though deposited in a public office, and having been formally questioned we have agreed. In the consulate of Iulius Constantius, patrician, brother of our master Constantine Augustus, and of Rufius Albinus, viri clarissimi (month, day?).

I, the aforesaid Aurelius Pekysis, have made this division on all the terms which it contains to which I both give my assent and by which I shall abide as aforesaid and having been questioned I have agreed. I, Aurelius Stonios son of Tepnachthes, priest, from the same village of Kellis, wrote on his behalf as he does not know letters.I, the aforesaid Aurelius Pebos, have concluded this division on all the terms which it contains to which I both give my assent and by which I shall abide as aforesaid and having been questioned I have agreed. I, Aurelius Sarapammon son of N.N., from the same village of Kellis, wrote on his behalf as he does not know letters.We, the,aforesaid Aurelius Pachoumis and his brothers, have concluded this division on all the terms which it contains to which we assent and by which we shall abide as aforesaid and having been questioned we have agreed. I, Aurelius Phoibammon alias Triphiodoros, from the city of the Hibites, wrote on their behalf as they do not know letters.I, the aforesaid Aurelius Horos, with my brothers (sic), have concluded this division on all the terms which it contains to which we assent and by which we shall abide as aforesaid and having been questioned we have agreed. I, Aurelius Heliodoros son of Horos, from the same village of Kellis, wrote on their behalf as they do not know letters.I, Aurelia Taoup daughter of N.N., have concluded this division on all the terms which it contains to which I assent and by which I shall abide as aforesaid and having been questioned I have agreed. I, Aurelius Phoibammon alias Triphiodoros, from the city of the Hibites, wrote on her behalf as she does not know letters."

66. Horoscope cast in 373

House 3

This horoscope is inscribed on one side of a wooden board while on the other there is an economic text written in Coptic, 73. There are errors in the dates given and in the astronomical and astrological data. The board was once part of a codex.

"Birth. Year 89 of Diocletian, Thoth Epagomene (?) 1, according to the Egyptians, which is according to the Greeks Pachon 21, at the 11 th hour of the day. Horoscopes in Libra, the House of Venus in the terms of Mercury, 22 degrees; the Sun in Taurus, the House of Venus in the terms of Mars, 8 degrees; the Moon in Leo, the House of the Sun in the terms of the Moon, 12 degrees; Mars in Scorpio, the House of Mars in the terms of Jupiter, 9 degrees; Jupiter in Cancer, the House of the Moon in the terms of Saturn, 5 (? or 9?) degrees; Venus in Leo, the House of the Sun in the terms of Mercury, 10 degrees; Saturn in Aquarius, the House of Saturn in the terms of Jupiter, 14 degrees; the Lot of Fortune in Scorpio, the House of Mars in the terms of Jupiter, 7 degrees; Mercury in Gemini, the House of Mercury in the terms of the Moon, [-] degree(s)."

67. Economic Text written in Clay

Main Temple

This inscribed clay tablet was found in the rubble which filled the double gateway into the Main Temple enclosure, and is the only one to have been found in Egypt written in Greek. The text is not translated here as it is extremely standard.

68. Fragment of Homer

Shrine III in the Main Temple

This small fragment of a wooden board preserves verses 294-7 of chapter XII of Homer's Iliad. Other than the Isocrates Codex, this and the mythological ostrakon, 69, are the only literary texts which have been found at Kellis.

69. Mythological Ostrakon

Shrine II

This unique text relates the legend of Cygnes, son of Poseidon; unfortunately the inscription on one side is badly preserved which makes translation difficult.

70. Worp, K. A.

Greek Papyri from Kellis: I. Oxford 1995.

From the first publication of Greek documentary papyri the transcription of the first text to yield the ancient name of Ismant el-Kharab, i.e. Kellis, is shown. This identification is found in the first line of the text, which is concerned with irrigation, and is incomplete.

The following are not included in the exhibition.

Sale of Half of a Foal on 27/11/315

House 2

"Aurelius Tou son of Beseponychos, from the village of Kerameia belonging to the city of the Mothites, to Aurelius Horos son of Mersis, from the village of Kellis belonging to the same city, greetings. I acknowledge that I have sold to you from now on for always the half part belonging to me of a white foal, exactly as it is right now, irrevocable and unassailable coming to me (from) ... of my father, for the price agreed upon between us of Imperial silver money in nummi, i.e. two talents, 3000 drachmae, in sum 2 tal. 3000 dr., which I received from you today in cash in full. I agree and I am satisfied and I shall guarantee with all guarantee in order that from now on you, the buyer, may possess and own the half foal sold to you by me - - - - and that you have the right to dispose of and manage concerning it in whatever way you may wish, while upon me, the seller rests in all circumstances the duty of eviction against every person making a claim. Let the contract of sale written in n copies, with the signature of the person subscribing on my behalf, be authoritative and guaranteed as if deposited in a public record office and in answer to the formal question I have agreed. In the fourth consulate of our lords Constantinus and Licinnius the Augusti, Mecheir 25 according to the Egyptians. Aurelius Tou son of Beseponychos, to Aurelius Horos the aforementioned: I have sold to you the half part of a foal and I have received the price, two and a half talents, in nummi-money, in sum 2 tal., 3000 dr., and I shall guararntee for you as stated above and in answer to the formal question I have agreed as stated above. Aurelius Psais son of ... , from the village of Kellis, has written for him as he does not know letters."
(Verso) "Sale of half of a foal by Tou son of Beseponychos."

 

Assault and Battery in 321

House 2

"To Aurelius Faustianus former magistrate of the city of the Mothites in the Great Oasis, defensor of the country. From Aurelius Pamouris son of Psais, from the village of Kellis of the city of the Mothites. If for everybody deeds of wilfulness will have success and if the severity of the laws would not usually follow, these times would be unsupportable for us ---. Now Sois son of Akoutis, comarch of the same village of Kellis, who is constantly plotting against me, (is harrassing ?) me every day in violation of everything, stirring up the locally present soldiers and officiates and expunctores against my wife and being a constant pain in the neck for me. For yesterday, during my absence, he burst the --- door open with an axe, went in with the son of Psenamounis (or: with his son Psenamounis?) the carpenter from Pmoun Pamo, though being neither, a liturgist nor happening to be a (fellow?-) villager of mine, he assaulted my wife with a club and he beat her up with blows so that these are visible on her body, as if they are not subject to the laws. As such is the mentality of the said comarch and the son of Psenamounis (or: his son Psenamounis?), and because I cannot live in peace, I present this petition to your clemency and I ask that these things be relayed to the braveness of my lord the praeses Valerius Victorinianus vir perfectissimus, in order that their reckless act get a fitting vindication. Farewell. After the consulate of our lords Constantinus Augustus consul for the 6th time and Constantinus nobilissimus Caesar consul for the 1st time, Tybi 11. I, the aforementioned, Aurelius Pamouris son of Psais, have submitted (the petition). I, Aurelius Phibion ex-magistrate of Hermopolis, have written on his behalf because he is not able to write."

Petition concerning an Assault and Stealing Pigs in 353

House 3

"To Flavius Faustinus vir perfectissimus, praeses, from Aurellus Gena son of Ouonsis, comarch of the village of Kellis in the Mothite nome. Appointed by lot, my lord, as comarch of our village, together with the other liturgists in the presence of the vice-exactor and all the other officials according to custom I made all the liturgists declare their status to the office of the strategus according to custom, and each one of us was appointed by lot to his liturgy consecutively, but I had to go after only a certain fellow named Taa, appointed by lot together with us ..., who is a an employee of the ex-magistrate Harpokration, in order that he, too, would stick to the public service together with our fellow-liturgists. But he, confident in the influence of the said Harpokration (which is considerable at the local level) despised my modest circumstances. And when he was held by me and my colleague Gena, the other comarch, the aforementioned Harpokration with great display of tyrannous conduct put some local assistants of his own armed with clubs in my way; they attacked me as if in open war, striking me with deadly blows, and drew the public 1iturgist away from us and they hit my left eye and my side. Now, while I am still on the verge of death, I have come to sending in this written complaint in order that I shall not die before the avenging takes place and my death goes unpunished. For Timotheos, his boy, also has a hand every time in ... the brutality -- he has planned (?) -- our pigs while squandering freely -- and stealing (?) the wine -- taking away the pig of my brother, as also convicted by Psais son of Pateminis and Psekes son of Psennouphis. And even all these things were not enough for him i.e. the theft (?) of the pig, but he robbed in public my poor brother of his clothing and chased him away to Egypt --- and forcing his way into my house he stole the wine which I had brought away from his home in public and for corroboration and proof of the violence done to me I mention Pebos son of Tithoes. the ..., who now has the clubs (?) at his home which he took from the assistants whose names (are): Troda. Psenpnouthes, Porphyrios, Theotimos, Leon, Sap..s, Korax, N.N., Pachoumis, N.N. son of Labouates (?), and witness of the assault were Horion the son of Tithoes the ... and witnesses a daughter of Gena son of Pakysis and Sarapodoros son of Eros. Therefore I send in this document to Hermogenes the deputy of the exactor, asking and conjuring him by the divine genius of our Lords the all-victorious Augustus and Caesar to bring him before our lord N.N in whom I now take refuge begging for retribution for the evil deeds I have suffered and a copy of this petition I have given to Ammonios, the stationarius of the countryside. In the consulate of our Lords Constantlus Augustus consul for the 6th time and of Constantius nobilissimus Caesar consul for the 2nd time. I, the aforementioned Aurelius Gena son of Ouonsis. have put this on public display."

Slave set free through an excess of Christian zeal in 355

House 3

"Copy of a deed of manumission. Aurelius Valerius son of Sarapion, ex-magistrate of the city of the Mothites, to my own Hilaria, greetings. I acknowledge that I have set you free because of my exceptional Christianity, under Zeus, Earth and Sun, together also with your peculium, and (because of) your loyalty towards me, in order that from hereonwards you shall have your freedom unassailed by anyone who shall try to lay a claim upon you with regard to this deed of manumission (made?) through the most reverend father Psekes - - - Let this deed of manumission be authoritative and guaranteed and lawful wherever it is produced and in response to the formal question I have answered positively. After the consulate of Constantius Augustus consul for the 7th time and of Constantlus nobilissimus Caesar consul for the 3rd time. I, the aforementioned Aurelius Valerius ex-magistrate, have drawn up the deed of manumission as written above and in response to the formal question, I have answered positively. I, the aforementioned Aurelius Psekes, pr(iest?), am present and witness." (Verso) "Copy of a deed of manumission."

Sale of a Slave in 362

House 2

"The Aurelii Psais son of Pekysis, grandson of Palitous, and Tatoup his wife, both from the village of Kellis in the Mothite nome, resident in the hamlet of E ---, to Aurelius Tithoes son of Petesis, carpenter, from the same village in the same nome, greetings. We agree that we have sold and conveyed to you from now for all time the slave girl belonging to us raised from the ground and reared by me the aforementioned wife with my own milk, at a price agreed between us of two nomismatia of imperial, unalloyed, and newly minted gold, total 2 nomismatia, which we have received from you from your hand in full on all the terms written herein to which we give assent, in order that you the purchaser from henceforth possess, own and have proprietary rights over the slave girl sold to you and have the right to control and manage her in whatever way you choose, the guarantee resting on us the vendors throughout against every litigant or claimant. Let the sale, having been written twice under the signature of he who is subscribing for us, be authoritative, guaranteed and legal everywhere it may be produced and having been formally questioned we have assented. In the consulate of Mamertinus and Nevitta, viri clarissimi, Thoth , according to the Greek calendar."(2nd hand) "We, the aforementioned Aurelii Psais son of Pekysis and Tatoup his wife, have sold the aforementioned slave girl ---- and we have received the price in two nomismatia of gold and we shall guarantee the sale for you with every guarantee as aforesaid and having been formally questioned we have assented. I, Aurellus Timotheos son of Harpokration ex-magistrate, have written for them at their request since they do not know letters."(3rd hand) "I, Aurelius Demosthenes,son of Polykrates, from the village of Kellis, am a witness."(4th hand) "I, Aurelius Horion son of Timotheos, from the village of Kellis, am a witness."

Sale of Real Estate in 363

House 3

"In the consulate of our lord Julianus perpetual Augustus, consul for the 4th time, and of Flavius Sallustius vir clarissimus, prefect of the imperial praetorium Pachon 27 of the 7th new indiction. Exchange --. Aurelius Psenpnouthes son of Pachoumon and mother Agape, about 55 years old, with a scar on the -- of the left leg, from the village Synoria in the Panopolite nome residing in the village of Aphrodite in the Antaiopolite nome, to Aurelius Horos son of Pamour, who is represented by his paternal grandfather Aurelius Psais son of Pamour and mother Tekysis, about n years old, with a scar on the flank of the shin of the left leg, from the village of Kellis belonging to the city of the Mothites in the Great Oasis acting on behalf of his grandson Horos and his son Pamour named 'Egyptians', residing in the same village of Aphrodite in the same nome, greetings to each other. We agree that we have exchanged with each other from now onwards for ever the sixth part of a farmstead which has come to you (Horos) from an inheritance of your mother, while you and your father were away, happening to be in the Oasis, acting through your grandfather Psais, (a sixth part of a farmstead) which is situated together with the -- in the southern parts of the village of Aphrodite, under joint ownership with me, the aforementioned Psenpnouthes; the neighbours of the farmstead are, for the equal half, at the south: plots of land, at the North: a public street in which the door of the opposite house opens, at the east: the enclosure walls of Pachoumios the black (or: son of Mauros?), at the west: -- fields of Besis --, or whoever the neighbours at all sides are; -- and that I, the aforesaid Psenpnouthes -- have exchanged the -- coming to me by right of sale -- according to the contract of division which has come to each -- and the neighbours of the whole house and the plot of land are -- public street, (behind which?) at the backside -- with the old house of Her-nios son of Theodoros, at the west plots of lands of others, or whoever the neighbours are in order that from now onwards each of us may be the owner and proprietor and manager of the exchanged properties and may build and we shall guarantee to each other with every guarantee from every person who wants to raise a claim against me and those who are acting for me (and we agree) that we shall reject these at our own cost, and that the -- and that we shall stand by all clauses written in this document as stated above. The contract of exchange, written in n identical copies, must be authoritative and legal and in answer to the formal question I have assented. I, the aforementioend Aurelius Horos son of Pamour represented by my paternal grandfather Aurelius Psais son of Pamour, have given in exchange the sixth part of a farmstead to you Psenpnouthes and -- I shall guarantee to you (with every guarantee and I agree) with all clauses written in the document as stated above. I, Aurelius -des son of Sarmates from Aphrodite, have written for him because he does not know letters. I, the aforementioned Aurelius Psenpnouthes son of Pachoumon, have exchanged and I shall guarantee to you with every guarantee and I agree with all clauses written in the document as stated above. I, Flavius Kollouthos, have written for him (Psenpnouthes) at his invitation, because he does not know letters and I am witness."

Renting a Room in 364

House 3

"Aurelia Marsis from the village of Kellis belonging to the city of the Mothites, now resident in the village of Aphrodite in the Antaiopolite nome, to Aurelius Psais son of Pamouris from the same village now resident in the same village, greetings. I have leased from you today for only the current year one room in your house and I shall give you as rent for this for the whole year two artabs of wheat. The lease contract is authoritative and in answer to the formal question I have assented. In the consulate of lovianus and Varronianus his son Hathyr 1. I, the aforesaid Aurelia Marsis, have leased as stated above. I, Aurelius Iakob son of Besis the priest, reader of the catholic church, have written on her behalf as she is not able to write by herself."

Miniature Manichaean Amulet

North Building, Area A

"I glorify you:the firstborn word;

the father of the intellectual man;

the mother of life;the first apostleship;

the splendour of the enlighteners;

our holy spirit;the salt of the church;the pilot of goodness!

Make us worthy to be of your faithful:

those who are justified in you;

those who are renewed in you;

those who are perfected in you;

those who are rejoicing in you;

those who are sanctified in you;

those who are sober in you;

those who hasten to you!

71. Two Books from House 3

These two wooden books were found tied together and embedded into the floor of room 4 in House 3. They each appear to have been made up from boards taken from different originals; the texts on all but one board are illegible. One side of this board is shown in 72. The inscriptions upon it are Manichaean psalms and a prayer; the psalms are abbreviated, giving only the beginning of each line.

72. Inscribed Board

"(I will?) pray to the Third

Ambassador. He sent

unto me Jesus the Splendour, the

apostle of light, the

redeemer of souls. He [bore (?)] me

to the Light Mind,

the Virgin of Light.

The spirit of truth, our lord

Manichaios, he gave to me

his knowledge. He made me strong in his

faith. He has fulfilled me in his

commandments. The image of my

counterpart came unto me, with her three

angels. She gave to me the garment and

the crown and the palm and the victory.

He took me to the judge without

any shame; for what he

entrusted to me I have perfected.

I washed in the Pillar. I was perfected

in the Perfect Man. They gave

me my first mind in the living

atmosphere. I rose up to the ship of

living water; unto the father, the First

Man. He gave me his image,

his blessing, and his love. I

rose up to the ship of living fire;

unto the Third Ambassador,

the apostle of light, the good

father. They ferried me

up to the land of light, to

the first righteous one and the

Beloved of the Lights. I came to rest

in the kingdom of the household (?); for

the Father of the Lights has revealed

to me his image.

We praise

Thou honoured

We lack ( ...

Thy father in Who (is) our father

They rejoice Myster(y) The light

Thou perfected

We accept the ( ...

A mercy for (our) tears (?)

A(ll) thy children

We entrust to thee

We all rejoice

Do not think

Have thou pity ( ...

Give to us v(ictory) Glory and"

73. Economic Text concerned with Weaving

House 3

This text is written on the other side of the same board as 66. It was clearly used as a support for a piece of leather from which the sole of a sandal was cut.

" ... ] on the day for the wool of Shai ... There are 2 mna there, and ... wool at the outside door. I am the one for whom we have fulled and moistened them, for Ouait. I am reckoned (?) 2 maje of wheat ... mna, to full it (and) to moisten it, in that you; because these are poor wools. These are not the ones I am reckoned (?) ... 2 for the 1 mna, 2 ... 4 maje, and another 1 after (?) the day ... It is you to whom we have given the 3 maje ... 2 ... minus ... which you have given to me here ...Also, the matter of (H)erakle(s): ... there are 3 mna there and 10 head-scarfs ... weft for the head-scarf is reckoned with them. I am to full it, to moisten it, ... the mna ... pledge his wage ... weft ... out from I have also cut it (out). It is I who have given the weaving wage for the other 3 ... apart from me (?), minus 3 maje of barley from the barley which I gave Lo. The 3 days of weaving ...Then: 13 days; apart from the day of preparation, which I spent at thread (?). We shall make 800 as weaving wage for these 13 days. Come back to this place for the weaving of the head-scarf.Also, the wool wage on the day when father Shai gave his ... he paid wages ... 3(00?) talents for the mna. Yourself: you wish to give, just as I (?) ... price (?) which you shall give to everyone. (It is) a matter which you have asked me about; see, I have told it. Or else: do you know that you have given more (?) money for all the wool. You wish to take your monies for yourself fromthe midst. Take them, and we shall give wages for the 2 ... That which has come upon it we divide between us. Now, are you satisfied? Just as you wish it, do it. A warp, you have spun it. I, myself, I have spun the weft.You have given 1200 on my behalf for (H)erakle(s). You have another 400 talents from me, with 8 jujubes, from before (?) the day when we made a reckoning with each other at the staircase. Then: 1600; (and) 8 jujubes.

See: 800 of weaving wage, together with the 500 of Shai for the wool of Shemnoute; - so that makes 1300. Now, from this 1300 I have given 3 maje of barley to mother Lo for 200, 200 nummi'.

Also, the weaving wage of the head-scarf: [..."

74. Epistles of Mani

House 3

Amongst the most important of the Manichaean texts found at Kellis are substantial parts from the Epistles of Mani, which are now in the process of being translated. The Kellis material preserves fragments of various sizes; here is illustrated one of the largest which comprises a bifolium.

75. Fragment from a Bilingual Text

House 3

Mani wrote in Syriac, a West Semitic language. In order to disseminate his beliefs in Egypt it was necessary to translate his writings into the native language of Coptic. In House 3 at Kellis there were found fragments of several bilingual texts in Syriac-Coptic, including that illustrated here which is one of several from the same board. Only parts of each line are given in each language/script; transcriptions of the texts upon the board are illustrated in 76.

76. Gardner, I.

Kellis Literary Texts, Volume 1. Oxford 1996.

The opening from this publication shows the transcriptions of part of the text upon one of the Coptic-Syriac bilingual boards found in fragments in House 3. See 75.

77 Private Letter

House 3

Numerous private letters were found in House 3 in various states of preservation and in different handwriting. One is translated below and another illustrated here to show the state in which many are found. Several were still folded when found and the addresses written upon the outside. The collection of letters illustrates that Coptic was in common use in the fourth century for private purposes throughout Egypt.

The following texts are not illustrated in the exhibition.

Private Letter or Spell?

House 3.

" I call upon you:

the one who has been from the beginning;

the one sitting above the Cheroubin and Sarouphin;

the one who stands (in judgement) over disputes and quarrels;

the one who has stopped the winds with his great power!

Just as you made the land of Egypt lord, you cast quarrels over the Chaldeans. You (pl.) are the ones over whom I utter these names. You (sg.) [are the one who makes (?)] what is generated black (?). Let "so & so" the son of "so & so", let their heart be black for each other. Oh timely (?) natron of Arabia! Just as you will wash away every thing, (so) you can wash (away) the desire which is between them for each other. And you are the burning of the mustard, as you can put burning and scorching into their heart for each other. The house in which I will place you (sg.), do not come out from it without having instigated a dispute and a quarrel and thundering.And four-times (speak) the other (man's name); four-times (speak) her (name); four-times (recite it all) again; four-times (speak the phrase), 'you will utter these words upon them'.

It is complete.

Private Letter

House 3

" (To) my mother, my loved lady, very precious to me, the beloved of my heart: The one whose memory and worthy motherhood are sealed in my heart every hour; the one whose kindnesses and goodness that she performs for me at all times are sealed in my inmost thought. My mother, very precious to me, Maria. It is I, your son; in the Lord God, - greetings.Before everything I greet you warmly, my lady mother; (10) with my brothers, my masters whose names are very precious to me at all times, every day and every hour. This is my prayer to the Father, the God of Truth, and his beloved Son the Christ, and his Holy Spirit, and his light angels: That he will watch over you together, you being healthy in your body, joyful in heart and rejoicing in soul and spirit, all the time we will pass in the body, free from any evil and anytemptation by Satan and any sickness of the body. And furthermore (I pray) that this great day of joy should happen to us, the (day) for which we pray indeed every hour, and God grant us that we may see the image of each other in freedom and with a smiling face. Or indeed if the ... are (and) if the sphere is the ... ; or else again perhaps they change and cast us once again towards you; and we will be satisfied with the face of all our beloveds. Would therefore that this may happen to us!

When I found the opportunity of my father Pseke and my father Pishai coming to you, I hastened to write and inform you about our health and the condition we are in; while I have already written another letter and added it to the letters of my father. I have also sent the medicines to you through them, bound with the letters of my father. I have put 135 grains there. I have also written: 'Take the 100 for you'. They are necessities. It was some friends who gave them to me, they are doctors.

Now, since you have written: 'Tell me about how you are'; as for myself, the Teacher left me in Antinoou, but my brother he took to follow after him. I am thinking that perhaps he will come by me (?) and leave him (Piene) some place. Should he again leave him, you will know. For he (the Teacher) loves him (Piene) very much, and makes him to read in church. Now, if he depends (?) on him, and the child is content following him, it will be his glory.

Thus, I have been here in Antinoou since the day when the Teacher came south; (and) I have been unable to find a way to go..., nor to visit my father, because they are mourning in the city for the blessed soul of my great mother. We are remembering her very much. And I was distressed that she died when we were not with her, and that she died without finding the brotherhood gathered around her. Do not neglect to write to us about your health.I pray for your health, ladies, for many years.

And I am astonished that, (although) I wrote: 'Write me the name of the daughter of Maria, what you are calling her, or the son of Partheni'; you have not written it!

Are you afraid lest he will become scorched on the mountain; or are you afraid lest ... to them? It is in God's power (to grant that) they have a long life.

Greet for me they who are with you ... ; especially my lady sister Tjmshai, and my father Pshai and his wife and his children. Greet for me Pakosh and Pamour and their children and their brothers, each by name. Greet for me my father Philammon and my mother Charis, with their sons and daughters, each by name. Greet for me Hatre and his wife and his children. Greet for me Jemnoute, with her children and her husband. Greet for me Phila and her husband. Greet for me my father Pshempnoute and my mother Kyria ...Greet for me Jmnoute ... children. Greet for me my mother Tamouienia. Greet for me ... and his mother and ... Greet for me Isi and ... Greet for me Marshe and her brothers, each by name, and their children and their whole house. Greet for me my mother Tashai and her children. Greet for me my mother Talaphanti and her children and her whole house. Greet for me my mother Louiepshai and her whole house and her children. Greet for me my brother Andreas, with his whole house and his people. Greet for me everyone who wishes our word. Live and be healthy for me a long time. I am praying to God, always (?).

Thanks to MadCow for the background image